VI. The 70s and the Youth

Main Themes of Korean Popular Songs in the Last 30 Years

Noh, Young-Hae

I. Introduction

This article was primarily intended to be used for class reading material of a course lectured in English, [Understanding Korean Music Culture] at KAIST (Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology). Couple of years ago, I taught a course for KAIST Summer International School about Korean Music. At that time, I prepared a brief material, mainly concentrating on characteristic features of Korean traditional music and Korean popular music as a brief introduction to contemporary Korean culture. Since that material was so brief and scanty I made a plan to write a more in-depth detailed article on the history of contemporary Korean popular songs. Lee Young-Mee's HanKook DaeJungKaYoSa(1998) offered a good starting point. 1970's saw the beginning of Korean youth culture which continued to affect the contemporary popular music culture for the rest of the 20th Century. I decided to start from the 1970's to chronologically trace the developmental procedure of the last 30 years of Korean popular songs and to examine the main themes or messages of their contents.

II. 1970s: Emergence of Youth Culture

1. The New Folk Songs

The 70s saw the beginning of a phenomenon that would prevail in the Korea pop music scene as the dominant one for the rest of the century and beyond--the youth culture. The so-called "star system" of today, where celebrities are adored, praised and worshipped by armies of young fanatics, is the product of the phenomenon that began back then, which one might sadly say, is the only phenomenon left now. Many big stars began their musical careers in 1968--twinfolio, the folk duet that later achieved both fame and commercial success, Han DaeSoo, who was known for his critical lyrical content and Shin JoongHyun who was loved for his "A Cup of Coffee and "Oh, My Darling"(Nimah). In the next year, the unforgettable event of throwing underwear at Cliff Richard occurred. All this was a definite sign of a brand new movement.
The new folk genre which flourished in the 70s as the main ingredient of the movement represented antagonism towards the culture of the older generation by the young. There was not much logic or rationality in their antagonism. Rather, it was a combination of the obstinate argument that Trot is just not stylish enough and the tendency to favor and admire anything that is American. Indeed, the youth of Korea at the time(and even of today) took in the American culture without much difficulty or animosity. From fashion to films and from pop music to literature, Korean youth wanted to imitate and thus be a part of the western way of life. The acceptance of the new Folk genre and its rapid spread could be achieved due to such aspiration.
Then why did such a culture of youth and rebelliousness emerge? Firstly, the main crowd (university students) of the 70s were composed of people of post-war era. These were the ones who grew up listening to American pop songs on AFKN and radio, who were not affected significantly by the Japanese Trot and who learned to appreciate the American philosophies of democracy and freedom, which formed the core of youth culture. Therefore, it is understandable that they openly showed their dislike towards the Japanese culture and its authoritativeness. Naturally, a new generation backed up by the American philosophy, aesthetics and value system took over the older one by quickly adopting and strongly supporting the new genre, Folk.
Secondly, the New Folk music had its unique aspects- amateurism and elitism. Most of the New Folk musicians were not professional in its strict sense of the word. Yoon HyungJoo, Yang HeeUn, Lee SangByuk, and Lim SungHoon were all university students when they set foot in the music industry and Kim MinKee, Song ChangShik and Suh YooSuk began their careers in YMCA, a non-commercial youth culture center. This amateurism among New Folk musicians, however, made it possible for Folk to be the first genre ever to be the direct opposition of Trot. Because New Folk songs were not written for financial success or public attention, they were somewhat fresh and original, much different from the nature of Trot which was directed towards money and fame. Elitism among Folk musicians also contributed to the elevation of Folk and its distancing from the mainstream. Their attitude towards music was serious and considered it as a medium for their self-discovery. This is greatly contrasting from Trot which was highly commercial in nature and lacked in artistic pursuit. Music was recognized as an high art form by the Folk people, which was further appreciated by the fact that many of them were graduates of top universities.

2. Themes in New Folk Songs

Folk songs, just like so many songs of other genres, mainly dealt with love, particularly those which were played on air. The differentiating factor, however, was the content--the lifestyle of the protagonists as portrayed by the lyricists. In the 30s, it was about wanderers who left their hometowns behind. In the 60s, it was about white-collar workers and the low class people in Seoul. In the 70s, it was focused on the young generation and their culture. Radical social phenomena then, such as guys and girls going on a trip together, girls in short skirts dating their boyfriends and guys calling their girlfriends in phone booths, were all reflected in the lyrics.
New Folk songs in the 70s can be categorized into three groups according to content.

A. Purity and innocence

This group of songs emphasized the beauty in clear and pure images or objects. Words such as "white", "small", "weak" and "tears" often came up which represented the clean and innocent minds of the youth.

You are a beauty

1. When the dark rain falls / you cry, standing under the roof Rain gathers inside your crystal clear eyes / oh, truly, you are a beauty
2. When strong wind blows / you run across the field / You face the wind with your warm heart / oh, truly, you are a beauty

I love every part of you

1. Morning that is as clear as glass, a heart that welcomes morning dew / I love your eyes that are just as beautiful
Such representation of the minds of the youth was in direct contrast to that of the adults which associated with contamination, lavishness and greed. The latter which had been dominant in Trot was criticized and condemned.

B. Contemplation and meditation

Friend

1. When it rains over dark sea, sky and water cannot be distinguished /If something sinks under that deep sea, the living and the dead are the same/ The image of my friend appears above those scattering leaves / The voice of my friend, will that train answer?

The white handkerchief

The white handkerchief that was neatly folded inside the letter that was sent by her after I left her / The white handkerchief that she waved in tears
when I was leaving my hometown / My tears wet it over her tear stains

The protagonist in "Friend" is in deep thought, recollecting a dead friend. In a dark night when the sea and the sky cannot be distinguished, he is thinking about life and death and their true meanings. In "The white handkerchief", the protagonist, upon receiving a letter and a white handkerchief, is reminded of the white handkerchief which his lover had in her hand when they were saying goodbyes. There is no outcry or burst of tears but only a calm reaction.
As one can see, the protagonists of New Folk songs are not active or in highly emotional state of mind. Instead, they contemplate and meditate, forcibly distancing themselves from reality and trying to examine it in a rational point of view. Therefore, an atmosphere of intellect and rationality prevails but there is hardly any emotional climax, and thus they are clearly differentiated from ballads in the 80s.

C. The small presence of youth in the adults' world

In the adults' world full of contamination and greed, youth cannot take up much place. The subsequent anger and sadness is expressed in New Folk songs.

Catching for Whale

1. No matter how much I drink, sing and dance, sadness remains in my heart / No matter how hard I look around, all have turned their backs against me / Let's all go to the East Coast on a third class train

No matter how much the youth drink, sing and dance, the adults will not recognize them. Everything that the youth see has turned its back on them. It cannot get any clearer than this. The gap that separated the youth and the adults was immense and frustration was the only outcome, as reflected in the above song.

3. Early 70s: Rock and Easy-Listening, and Trot

A. Folk and Rock

Shin JoongHyun, commonly known as the Godfather of Korean Rock, wrote a new chapter in the history of Korean pop music as he formed the first Korean Rock band in 1962. For the next four years until the members split, it played the leading role in the Rock genre, establishing a foundation which the next generation of singers could build upon. Around early 70s, numerous Rock songs captured the hearts of many-"A Cup of Coffee" and "Nimah(Oh, My Darling)" by Pearl Sisters, "My Love is Far Away" by Kim ChooJa, "Let's Go to the Beach" by Key Boys and "Memory of A Drink" by Lee JangHee being some of the examples. It seemed that New Folk music which was the dominant power in the youth culture at the time had finally found its match.
However, that did not turn out to be the case. Although foreign Rock groups and singers such as
Beatles and Cliff Richard were immensely popular and Rock by its nature was perfect for expressing the enormous physical energy of the young, it was not as influential and dominant as Folk music in leading the youth culture of the 70s. Analysts claim that the problem was in the birth place of Korean Rock. Unlike New Folk whose audiences were composed of university and high school students, the main stage for Rock was the U.S. army, target audience being the adults of somewhat older generation. Naturally, it could not fit well in the youth culture but instead had to look towards night show stages and adult-oriented TV shows to gain popularity.
Rock stood out amongst other genres in numerous ways. The use of electric guitars and drums allowed for extreme manipulation of sounds and melodies, powerful beat sounds were often incorporated into songs and a whole new way of singing where high notes were emphasized by loud shouting was introduced. Compared to New Folk, Rock seemingly had so many qualities to shock everyone. Nevertheless, close relationship between New Rock and Trot in terms of melody lines and lyrical content bored many listeners and thus dampened the true Rock spirit. Furthermore, New Folk was in an advantage in that its participants(musicians) were mostly students who did not have to worry over the economics behind what they did. They were doing what they enjoyed and so their artistic desires could be pursued at a lot more ease than Rock musicians whose main concern was money. This explains why Rock could not totally be independent from Trot nor any other mainstream genre of the time--it was considered safer to stick to the mainstream.

B. Shin JoongHyun: Godfather of Korean Rock

Shin JoongHyun definitely stood out amongst the first generation Rock musicians in Korea, in both originality and unconventionality. In his early hit song "A Cup of Coffee", a very unique harmonic progression can be seen in the part "Oh, my love, oh, please wait for me" and the childish but direct expression in such line as "it passed 8 minutes and 9, after one minute, I'll go" is persuasive and fresh. In "My Darling is far away", Shin daringly shortens the melody lines, subsequently making it sound disjointed yet surprisingly harmonious. He liked to experiment with his music, always concentrating on creativity and the taste of his fans.
Shin won fans over a wide age range, from university students to Trot-lovers in their 40s. As explained earlier on, Rock was related to Trot in several aspects and so it was relatively easy to appeal to the older generation, especially those in the low-class; "A Cup of Coffee", "My Darling is Far Away", "Sergeant Kim is back from Vietnam" and "A Beauty"(MeeIn) being a few of the songs that attracted them greatly.
In 1974, Shin's musical career takes on a new course with his new band <Shin JoongHyun and YupJons(Coins)>. The band's first(and phenomenal too!) hit song "A Beauty," backed up by its extreme simplicity and psychedelic electric guitar sounds, won fans all over the country regardless of age or sex. The repetitive phrase "With one and two looks give me more urge to see her" became almost a national slogan.
Had Shin continued on writing music in a style similar to that in "A Beauty," the whole of first generation Rockers would have followed the trend by writing music with lyrics about radical deviations from a normal life. However, Shin decided to develop and spread only the music structure of Rock and not its traditional spirit of resistance and revolution. Therefore, at least content-wise, Korean Rock became to be no different from that of the mainstream Korean pop music.

C. Deterioration of Trot and the Growth of Easy-Listening

Although the New Folk indeed was a fresh vitalizer in Korean music industry, overall, it was not the most prominent element. Trot and Easy-listening were still the leading genres up until the early 70s, with Lee MeeJa and Patti Kim as the respective "queens" in each. Na HoonAh and Nahm Jin were the driving force behind the soaring popularity of male Trot and new stars such as Jung MeeJo and Lee SuMie were born in Easy-listening. Interestingly, as time passed, Trot was slowly buried under Easy-listening and New Folk and in the process, its nature gradually changed, becoming a representative genre of the less educated, lower class group. It certainly was a sign of its deterioration.
One of the most common subjects in Trot of the 70s was the sadness and the homesickness of the people who moved to big cities in search of jobs. The songs below whole-heartedly express their feelings.

Hometown Far Way

In my hometown that is so far away under the southern skies / My loving parents and brothers wait for me anxiously / My wondering footsteps in this far away alien streets in this alien land / Although I gulp down my sadness with this drink / My heart drifts to my hometown sky

I Like My Hometown

Who said that an alien land becomes your hometown once you get used to it? / No, No, that cannot be, that is only when you are drunk, trying to overcome homesickness / Oh, oh, oh, oh, I hate this alien land, I want to go back to my hometown

Above songs share many musical qualities with Easy-listening. Other songs such as "River at My Hometown" (Nae GoHyang-ui Gahng)(1971, lyrics by Sohn SukWoo, music written by Won EeBoo) and "With My Darling"(NimkwaHamKke), for example, can almost be passed for Easy-listening songs. The realm of influence of Easy-listening was increasing.
Monotonous Easy-listening which wrote the fundamental "musical grammar" of Korea after the liberation also affected Folk. "A Lost Deer,"(GilEreunSaSeum "Yesterday's Rain" (OeJeNaeRin Bee) (1974, lyrics by Choe InHo, music written by Jung SungJo) and "Love of My Sweetheart" (Nae Nim-ui SaRang)(1974, lyrics and music written by Lee JooWon, sung by Yang HeeUn) are Folk songs with Easy-listening influence; they are all based on the singing style and acoustic guitar sounds of Folk and at the same time follows the melodic lines of a traditional monotonous Easy-listening.

Yesterday's Rain

It rained yesterday / While fresh dew fell through the short leaves, it rained / An umbrella may shield a body from rain but it cannot shield rain of love / Rain of love, wet me, wet me through

III. 1980s: Cho YongPil and Ballads

1. Superstar Cho YongPil

2. Other Mainstream Musicians

With Cho YongPil as the leader of the pack, other musicians quickly adopted his style of fusion music; Kim SooChul, Jun YoungRok and Lee SunHee coming out as the prominent members of the mainstream. KimSooChul's early hit songs such as "Flowers yet to be bloomed" (1983, lyrics and music written by Kim SooChul, sung by also Kim) and "Why can't you know" (1984, lyrics and music written by Kim, sung by Kim) show many similarities with Cho YongPil's "Woman behind the window" and "Forget-me-not," containing the melody line and harmonies of a typical 60s' monotonous Easy-listening and the hard and loud Rock sounds in the climax in the next octave. The difference in Kim's songs is that he uses electric guitar instead of a synthesizer to produce simple and refined sounds.
Lee SunHee's strongest advantage is her powerful voice. In her songs "Ah, that good old days" (1985, lyrics by Song SooWuk, music written by Song JooHo), "I'm falling in love" (1985, lyrics and music written by Song JooHo) and "That's all right" (1985, lyrics by Park GunHo, music written by Lee BumHee) which were all great hits, Lee boasts her superlative singing ability and her voice which shines above the rest. In contrast, Jun YoungRok sang songs with a lower key due to his lack of singing power but lavishly decorated his music with the use of electric instruments playing fast rhythms.
Other mainstream members included SongGolMae, a Rock band that contributed to the rapid popularization of the genre, Yoon ShiNae and Lee EunHa, whose singing styles of the Blues, became a trademark and Kim SooHee who was loved for her ability to cover all genres from Trot to Easy-listening. 80s truly was an era of stability and integration.

3. The Nature of Rock and Inner Complications Shown in Ballads

There were four main distinct features in Korean Rock that differentiated it from that of the Western. First, Korean Rock had relatively stronger rhythm that was supported by back beats which stressed the beats that came in the end. Second, both voice and instrumental sounds were much more distorted. By electrical amplification, the string instruments were played to create artificial metallic sounds and when singing high notes, singers deliberately screamed out loud, almost creating an atmosphere of desperation. Third, the sound volume in general was much higher and the expression of emotions was outward and direct, often bursting out in anger or joy. Lastly, rather than using harmonic and melodic lines as the central means of progression, simple rhythmic formats were repeatedly followed which unexpectedly led to big musical leaps from time to time.
The above four characteristics show that Korean Rock in the 70s and 80s was completely independent of the "White music" of the West, which valued harmony and melody lines, volume of natural voice, and a standard format that could serve as a model. As if to rebel against such philosophy, Rock was impulsive, resistant and even autistic at times. It was a genre that should be felt physically but not rationally, which was subjective but not objective and which was self-expressive but not negotiable. All those elements separated the Rockers from their surroundings, and the resulting pain and loneliness were often the central theme in their songs. First the mumbling, then the loud psychopathic screaming with incomprehensible words was the way they expressed themselves and was the means by which they dealt with their stress. Letting it all out was the beauty of Rock.
Shin JoongHyun's music was very close to the true spirit of Rock. His hit song "A Beauty" has it all; repetitions, distortions, abnormal understanding of the world and outward expressions. It was more than just a structural imitation.
Inner complications began to be expressed explicitly in ballad songs of the 80s. Take "Heenahri" for example.

Heenahri

Was my prudent heart so binding? / It was not because I could not trust you, but now, it has become the very reason of our separation / You gradually lost trust in me, leading me to believe that you were sick at heart/ I can only be blamed for loving you truly and deeply / Now, as if I were a sinner, I cannot get close to you and cannot do anything but wait for you
The situation in the above song came up often in the 80s' Ballads, where the protagonist is in a dilemma which he cannot do much about. Although he loves his girl, he cannot get near her. To advance or to retreat are both problematic, as the phrase goes, "My love, too far to get close".

4. Trot, Dance music and Ballads

A. Ballads in the late 80s
Korean pop music in the late 80s could be categorized into three main genres- pop Ballads, dance music and Trot. These three were popularized quickly thanks to the amazing means of mass communication, the television. The term "pop Ballads" refers strictly to the Ballad songs of the 80s, which were under heavy influence of those of the West in style. "Ballad" was so loosely defined that it would include all sweet and melodic love songs that were written since the 60s.
Lee Yong began the 80s with his Ballad song "Forgotten Season" (1982, lyrics by Park GunHo, music written by Lee BumHee), followed by Lee SunHee's "To J" (1984, lyrics and music written by LeeSeGun) and Choe SungSoo's "Strangers" (1986, lyrics and music written by Cho himself). The genre matured and prospered as underground musicians such as Lee KwangJo, Ryu JaeHa and Lee MoonSe became involved and up until 1991, it was the mainstream genre in Korean music scene.
Pop Ballads of the 80s were written in the most lavish and varied harmonies and melodies, with piano often as the leading instrument creating a classy and elegant atmosphere. In contrast to Easy-listening songs of the 60s, they were written in major key and the lyrics were in much more natural conversational language.
The so-called "Ballad phenomenon" of the 80s was a product of the continuous foreign diffusion of their music which had begun long ago. Easy-listening, for example, was the structural basis for pop Ballad in Korea. New Folk(together with Easy-listening), having adopted the theories of modern Western music was completely independent of Trot, which led Ballads to avoid minor keys. Rock and its messages of complicated inner self and its impressive loud screaming at climax also helped shape Ballad songs of the 80s.
Having been influenced by so many different types of music, pop Ballad indeed had many faces. Lee MoonSe conveyed unusual emotions with a unique melody and harmonic progression. In his song "When I stand under a shade tree by the road", the ups and downs of melody are in big strides which allow the singer to appropriately express the severe emotional turmoil. Beautiful lyrics which portray a vivid scene of a farewell are controlled yet powerful. Lee SeungChul and Shin HaeChul, who were initially members of Rock bands, brought in elements of Rock into pop Ballad and exquisitely fused them together. On the other hand, a Folk-Rock group DongMulWon (Zoo) influenced Ballad with Folk.
The growth of pop Ballad was also related to the overall improvement in Western music education in Korea. Vital instruments in Ballad such as Guitar and Piano were taught all over the country as a must for children's cultivation and music majors such as Ryoo JaeHa served as the leader in upgrading the general standard of the industry.

The Forgotten Season

I still remember that October night we last met / We exchanged meaningless words and had to say goodbye / That sad look on your face, was that your truth? / Do I have to be forgotten without even an excuse? / The season always comes back and gives me a dream / but a dream that cannot be realized is sad / it makes me cry

B. Dance music and Trot
The era of Dance music kicked off with the spread of color television, the demand for young and photogenic faces and their fanatic worshippers in their teens. Influenced by disco and break dancing, Dance music could be understood as Rock that originated from Easy-listening. It had the strong rhythms, outward expressions and physical energy of Rock which were intertwined with sweet and melodic harmonies and melodies of a typical Easy-listening song. Subsequently, Dance songs were perfect for singing along and to dance to. Teens were captivated by Dance stars such as Park NahmJung (Untimely Arrival of Love) and SoBahngCha (meaning Fire Engine). Women dance stars lured male fans with their sexy and sensuous moves, much affected by foreign entertainers including Madonna. Kim WanSun was the representative woman entertainer in this field.
Trot was losing out in the supply of fresh subject items. However, it was backed up by superstars such as Cho YongPil, Kim SooHee (It's Not Fair and Shim SooBong (As Man is Ship, So is Woman Harbour) who contributed greatly to extension of its life. The situation improved as the concept of "Trot Medley" was introduced in Joo HyunMee's debut album. Trot Medley simply played many Trot songs back-to-back, losing the original emotions in each song in the process but overall becoming a great means of spending free time. Taxi and other vehicle drivers loved it and so did dancers. Furthermore, with her debut song "Rainy YoungDong Bridge", Joo HyunMee started Trot in major key once again and led the trend with "The Man at ShinSaDong" and "Just a Moment". However, the main theme of the songs centers around "regret"and "emotional attachment" as the refrain repeatedly emphasizes. Her breaking voice technique was loved by her fans and was also used by other Trot singers Hyun Chul and Moon HeeOck.

5. The Place of MinjungGayo(Song for the masses) in the Context of Korean Pop Music Scene

In the 70s, university students in Korea started a MinjungGayo phenomenon of their own without any support from the media or record companies. It was the result of spontaneous growth, completely independent of Korean pop music and free from censorship and commercialism. The participants were strongly against standardization of themes and believed that the main purpose of music is honest reflection of our lives and should be to help its listeners overcome their personal problems. Thus in the process make the world a better place for everyone. At first, despite such extraordinary nature and ambitious goals, this cultural phenomenon stayed inferior to pop music in both scale and realm of influence. Therefore, its success depended on effectively adopting mainstream music and undergoing appropriate transformations so as to present it in a unique perspective.
MinjungGayo took the form of New Folk and monotonous Easy-listening as the dominant genres, winning fans all over the country quickly. By the mid 80s there were more than one thousand MinjungGayo songs released, hundreds of university clubs were formed and "Dawn," a professional MinjungGayo group for university graduates took an influential role.
Then came 1987, the year of "June Rebellion" and the end of fifth Republic. As a result, Koreans were able to enjoy a little more democracy and freedom in all areas of society, not to mention the music industry. In October, as the representative MinjungGayo group ever to have set foot in Korean pop music world, NoChatSa(short term for Those who seek for songs) went into full swing. The members of the group first began by rearranging existing MinjungGayo songs and performing them in small scale. As their popularity increased, they released a full-scale album, selling 700,000 albums, a phenomenal number back then. Their choice of songs was excellent, picking out ones which had the highest potential; "Oh, Green Pine Tree"(SolAh, Prureun SolAh) (lyrics and music written by Ahn CheeWhan), "4 Seasons (SaGye) (lyrics and music written by Moon SeungHyun) and "In the Wilderness (GwangYaEhSur) (lyrics and music written by Moon DaeHyun) were some of them.
The emergence of MinjungGayo in Korean pop music was significant for three reasons.
First, the government became much more lenient in their censorship. The strong character of fans who were active supporters of democracy could not be ignored and radical expressions such as "for true freedom where the spirit of people prevails" or "it was a long and deadly night" which never were even imagined to be said out loud began to be accepted. This opened doors for further developments, which also affected over ground pop music scene in positive ways.
Second, many musicians whose songs had been banned were allowed to be actively involved in their work again. People such as Kim MinKee, Chung Tae-Choon and Kim KwangSuk were freed, and they helped the music industry to prosper.
Lastly, the power of its fans must be recognized. It showed that people could heavily affect the mainstream music scene when they believe in themselves and fight with determination. We have to bear in mind that MinjungGayo began by university students who did not rely on media and record companies. Such power remained until well past the 90s, serving as the driving force in the industry.

IV. The 90s: Seo Taejie and Post-Seo Taejie

1. Pop music for the New Generation

A. The leaders of the 90s, the New Generation
The youth of the 90s was more than just another group of youngsters in love with their movie stars or who rebelled against their parents. Referred to as the "New Generation", they became one of the dominant forces in the Korean society, affecting the economy and culture in particular. Long hair, beer and jeans of the 70's were replaced by a new era of individualism, sincere expression of emotions and commercialism. And Seo Taejie, the President of Teens, was at the center of all.
Before Taejie, there was nothing extraordinary happening in the music industry of the early 90s. Pop ballad was still in its best days with Shin SeungHoon, Yoon JongShin and Lee SeungWhan as the new leaders, Trot singers such as Tae JinAh and Sul UnDo released new songs once in a while and dance music was widely spread by Hyun JinYoung and ChulEe&MeeAe. In this seemingly ordinary situation, no-one was able to anticipate what was to come, and how it would change everything.
Seo Taeji, with his debut song "I Know it" (Nan Arayo) started a cultural syndrome that would later on affect numerous areas. From music, to dance and fashion, he completely wiped out all existing stereotypes and trends. His rap was more than enough to draw interest of all, which was a genre that had never been pioneered before, baggy shorts and turned-around cap was an unprecedented dress code and fast and co-ordinated dance sequences made the usual group dances (which were usually composed of exact same movements performed by everyone) obsolete. A fresh and new cultural wave swept over and shocked all teenagers. Taejie became their God in no time at all.
Such wave of change was not limited only to music industry. In films, ones in positive air such as comedies prevailed, TV dramas that dealt with young love swamped all channels and as time passed, everything became more and more teen-oriented with the focus on uniqueness, cheerfulness, and positiveness. The message was clear: a new era of teenagers had begun.
In this period (how timely!), worried voices were raised on teens and their values which became the hottest issues in many heated social debates. In most cases, the older generation busily found faults with them, criticizing their extravagant lifestyle, immoral thoughts, and unacceptable modes of fashion. For example, the "Orange group of Apkujung-dong area" was the typical portrayal of degraded teens to the eyes of the older generation. However, there were people on the other side of the argument. The writers of [New Generation: Do As You Please] supported the free spirit of teens, who respected each other and got rid of irrational systems that bound them.
In many respects, the "New Generation" of the 90s were different from "Youth Culture" of the 70s: Firstly, their backgrounds. While teens in the 70s were used to the culture of student demonstration which involved comradeship and togetherness, those in the 90s grew up in an environment where individualism was greatly valued. Secondly, they grew up watching television all their lives and therefore were much more imaginative and visually trained than the older generation. Lastly, they were true city kids, who were used to city noise and other mechanical sounds. Considering all this, they were two very different groups and so were the two cultural phenomena.

B. Over ground and Underground
After Taejie's ""I Know it"(Nan Arayo), the remainder of the 90s was dominated by Dance music. Various musicians appeared one after the other, each determined to pioneer and experiment with this new genre that was set before them. The main players in the industry at this time include artists such as ChulEe&Meeae, HyunJinYoung, Deux, Zam, Noise and Loola who all contributed greatly to diversification of Dance music.
Dance music boasted a structure that had never seen before. Beautiful melodic flows and neat harmonies of Cho Yong-Pil were ignored and replaced by radical and complex notational systems. Also, lyrics progressed in a completely different way. Rather than the usual logical and chronological flow of thoughts which all reached a climax and then were retold after that, Dance songs narrated in little fragments in a speedy and natural manner which surprisingly all could be pieced together. The reality portrayed in Dance songs was discontinuous yet acceptable. Therefore, in so many ways, songs of Park NahmJung and SoBangCha in the '80's just could not be compared to the 90s' Dance music in both scale and complexity. Taejie's rap and his dazzling instrumentality based on heavy metal and techno, or Deux's fantastic vocal harmony with their chorus singers were all overwhelmingly beyond them.
Taejie must be praised for his adoption of Rap into Korean music. Unlike today, in early 90s, Rap was a breakthrough in singing style, one that was never expected to be possible in Korean language. Taejie proved that wrong with his rhymes and fast prose-like narrations, and teens who always crave for uniqueness and individuality were soon won over. The only regretful thing was that the source of his creativity was once again from the Unite States. Koreans never could be completely independent culturally.
While over-ground music scene was swamped with Dance and Rap, underground also prospered with stars such as 015B, Next, KangSan-e, PooReunHaNeul and Kim JongSuh. They were recognized for their experimental spirits (which could not often be seen in over-ground for commercial reasons) and lyrics with strong social messages. "Couples who get used to", and "Essay and Car" of 015B, "Raguyo" (So it says) of Kang San-e, "Self-Fascination" of PooReunHaNeul and "City Dwellers" of Next dealt with serious and meaningful subjects--relationship between individual and society. It nurtured and upgraded the standard of the overall industry and made songs of the New Generation worth listening to.
In over ground, Taejie and Deux were the ones who played that role. Taejie's second album was different from the first in that the subject matters were no longer restricted to love only. Subjects such as exploration of self(SuSheAh) and the deadly consequences of drug addiction(Swamp of death) were ones which were never introduced in Korean music before. He certainly had more to say than other dance musicians, influencing people's minds with his words to a great extent.
The Dance boom continued throughout the 90s, reaching its peak in 1995 and keeping on its popularity. In over ground, "Excuse" (lyrics and music written by Kim ChangWhan, sung by Kim GunMo), "Unreasonable Reason"(lyrics by Kim ChangWhan, music written by Chun SungIl, sung by Park MeeKyung), "One Hundredth Date" (lyrics by KangUnKyung, music written by ParkGeunTae, sung by LooLa), and "Sorrow of Superman"(sung by DJ DOC) all obtained hottest attention of all New Generation youngsters. Other genres were also tried out, Rhythm and Blues by the group Solid and Rave pioneered by Ref. Underground was also bursting with new musicians and albums, with Next and KangSan-e releasing their second albums, JunRamWheo (Exhibition) with "Study on Memory"(1994, lyrics and music written by Kim DongRyul) and The Classic with "Magic Castle"(1994, lyrics and music written by Kim KwangJin). The momentum of its progress only seemed to increase every year.
Interestingly, Taejie was able to establish himself as the king in both over and underground. As his lyrics and way of dress became unacceptable for TV appearances, his popularity in underground soared drastically. Therefore, with his existing fans in over ground and his new fans obtained in underground, Taejie expanded his area of action and his realm of influence. He was the Godfather of Korean music industry, with leading groups such as Deux and Panic following his lead in words and expressions.
In quality and quantity, 90s was a period of rapid growth. With the New Generation as the biggest market, music and related culture businesses had to be used as a commercial weapon. Time had come for a next level in Korean music industry.

2. Musicians of the 90s and their philosophies

A. In search of the inner-self
1) Solitary lives
It is important to note that singer-songwriters in the 90s did not restrict their themes to the usual subject of love. In their lyrics, they began to reveal their inner thoughts and philosophies on sensitive issues such as personal relationships, teenage problems, corruption and irrational educational system. As the issues became more varied, lyricists pursued those which could touch the hearts of everyone. Subsequently, it all came down to the fundamentals; the question of human existence. In the songs of the 90s, humans are portrayed as solitary beings, who gradually lose their original self in the process of associating with other humans but still carries on inter-human relationships in an effort to overcome their loneliness.

Street of Solitude

I suddenly felt a sharp dizziness. That winter passed by, as I stood in the crowded street in vain. I walked in loneliness. After some loving and crying,
what's remaining is the loneliness that I cannot escape. I grew up to be a man from being a boy while I was with you, and you turned into a stranger from a lover when you left me/ I suddenly felt a sharp dizziness, standing in this crowded street/ (monologue) When loneliness whispers in your ear, do not be afraid anymore / It is a friend who will stay with you until the rest of your life

The above is not just another love song. It strongly tells us that human beings are all lonely and that love truly teaches us that, making us grow up "to be a man from being a boy". It is ironic in that love which is thought to be the cure for loneliness is actually the very cause of it.

2) Dissociation of inner-self
Songs which explored the nature of inner self of humans prevailed in both underground and over-ground. Such phenomenon was the result of the customary practice of musicians focusing on private lives of people and New Generation kids who prioritized their personal needs and worries.

Suesheah

No one can be quite like me / I will let the world know / I will never try to imitate anyone / so as to be an individual / Be proud of your God-given self / Be decisive, crush everything, don't be afraid of failure, because you can survive it all / Next time you will happily reminisce your past

The core argument was simple; "I am the one and only, therefore, I am unique. But I lost my true self, and so I have to get it back". The New Generation wanted to be freed from all preexisting restrictions and boundaries. By being what they were, they strived to achieve independence and character. External input from parents and teachers would only be interfering elements.

3) Positively pursuing the desires in chaos

The New Generation valued their dreams and goals because they proudly believed that they were worth what they wanted. The possible consequences of their pursuit or justifications going against their decisions were not seriously considered for present was the only time span that mattered to them. They took a sincere and positive attitude in expressing their desires openly but in some cases, their desires were spontaneous and instinctive. Perhaps there was a limit in their philosophy for inner self can only be found when one interacts with another and learns from others, which the New Generation refused to accept. The sad result, then, was different individuals with different desires all fighting to achieve their goals. Such chaos and complications are well illustrated in the song below.

Go, go, go

Our childhood days are gone, and now we are adults in our jobs./ We think we are having a hard time, we treat people wrong because of our simple-mindedness,/ we cannot understand adults with innocent minds,/ we do not like video games, toys and cartoons, and do not understand people who do, and they also do not understand us, and it gets complicated and worse and worse / It's up to you to find your happiness. Relax and take it easy. Once you find small happiness, that's a start

B. World torn apart

1) Corrupted and polluted
In the eyes of the New Generation, the world was not a place worth living in. Thanks to the corrupted older generation, the meaning of true love and innocence had long been lost, only to be replaced by distrust and unfaithfulness. Such attitude was not completely new, for the younger generation of the 70s also had expressed their regrets at the adults through New Folk. The only difference was that the youth of the 70s believed that they were still untouched by corruption and depravity while those of the 90s were victims of them.

World full of dust

1. In the days when we could run in the rain without an umbrella Life sparkled with clear and bright sunshine Now what will we tell our children? Through the old window pane I see greed, stubbornness and ignorance By the time you start missing your old days, it's already too late

2) Hopelessness and Sarcasm
The New Generation often showed no hope in the future that lay ahead. Ironically, this eliminated tragic despair or frustration, for true despair cannot exist without desperate hope for the future.

Monoless in the 21st Century

1. An old man sitting on a bench quietly lights his cigarette. He takes a look at the withering flowers and sighs, thinking of the winner of this world Gray skies fade away my childhood and the continuous season of storms sheds tears in my heart
2. We called it history, we believed in destruction, money, and a religion, called science. For whom can we blame God in the deserted paradise no longer waits for us Great human dreams destroyed us as if we made our own coffins High rise sky scrapers were destined to be destroyed within due time

(3) Lovers who fret
As the world around us was torn apart so as love relationship for the New Generation youngsters. They did not believe in love that lasts forever and in its fate-reliant character. Now they thought it was possible even to fall in love with their friends' lovers ("Wrong Match" by Kim GunMo) and they did not consider waiting forever for one true love. When necessary, they fretted and complained to their spouse and sincerely conveyed and expressed their feelings or complaints. Again, we can see how much they valued their individual needs and desires and how the will to fulfill their wants had increased dramatically. This was the new mentality of the 90s.

Couples who get used to

When evening comes, we call each other out of sense of duty, and ask what each other's day was like / Sometimes we express our love towards each other but it just does not feel the same anymore / (chorus) Only when we get back the feelings we had when we first met, will we be able to work it all out

(4) Reasons which allowed strong social criticisms in lyrics
The New Generation was daring and honest in expressing their thoughts and as time passed, their bluntness became ever more direct. There were five reasons which allowed this to happen.
Firstly, the lyricists of the 90s grew up in a period of aroused social consciousness (student demonstrations in the 80s fighting for democracy) and so were much affected by the need to raise social problems whenever necessary.
Secondly, the law regarding the contents of songs became much more lenient in the 90s thanks to Chung TaeChoon's unceasing efforts. The movement had begun back in the 80s when "MinJungGayo" artists fought for freedom in expressions. Since then, critical terms such as "freedom" and "democracy" were allowed.
Thirdly, there were fans who readily and gladly accepted the movement in free expression of thought. Instead of just rejecting such intentions, people willingly bought the albums and shared the anger, agony and despair of the public.
Fourthly, rebelliousness of Rock was widely spread and so it was used as an appropriate genre in expressing wild and critical thoughts.
Lastly, Taejie was in the middle of it all with his third and fourth albums. His influence was a lot greater than those of underground musicians for he appeared on TV and had direct contact with his fans. Now teenagers became a part of the movement towards freedom of expression and thus the number of fans who willingly accepted it increased exponentially.

C. The fate of Trot and Folk
Pure and genuine emotions which had been at the heart of Trot all along were lost in those of the 90s. This was the biggest alarm for Trot fans and was a sign of its termination.

I hate it

1. Why do I have to go through all this pain when there are so many other people out there waiting for my love? Why do I have to be bound by you? Oh, I hate love, I hate dreams, I want to forget it all I regret all these years that I spent caught in your web. Now there is nothing I can do.
The days when the protagonist used to be completely immersed in his love were gone. Now, he expressed his anger at his stupidity for not being decisive enough to leave his love for another. That was the "Trot spirit" of the 90s. Also, Trot was no longer sad. The remake version of "Maiden at SoYang River" was quite light-hearted and even comedic expressions were often used, especially in songs of Pyun SeungYup (ChanChanChan) and Sul WoonDo (ChaChacha for Everbody).
The New Folk, on the other hand, managed to more or less keep its original form and style. It was divided into two groups, one with songs of regrets of the middle-aged and the other with social messages, losing its overall power but gaining in variety. Yang HeeUn's "Bitterness of My Love", "When I'm at the Age of Forty" and Kim KwangSuk's "When I was around Thirty", "A Story of an Old Couple in their Sixties" were included in the former and Jung TaeChoon's "My Home Town," "People", "We Cross it" were included in the latter.

V. Conclusion

While 70s was a period of diversity and experimentation without one single individual or genre taking the leadership role, 80s was one of definite direction and charisma. With the emergence of the greatest superstar in Korean music history, Cho YongPil whose main philosophy was variety. Instead of concentrating on one genre, he worked with main genres of that time (Ballad, Rock, Easy-Listening and Trot), mixing them up or developing each genre whenever he considered timely. Instead of relying on guitars which was the norm in early Rock, Cho made use of synthesizers so as to create gorgeous harmonic sounds. His unique style was followed by many musicians in the 80s. By appealing to a wide range of people, he not only increased the number of his fans and his sales profit but also was able to start a new cultural phenomenon,, namely fan clubs and <oppabudae>.
The era of Dance music kicked off with the spread of color television, the demand for young and photogenic faces and their fanatic worshippers in their teens. Influenced by disco and break dancing, Dance music could be understood as Rock that originated from Easy-listening. It had the strong rhythms, outward expressions and physical energy of Rock which were intertwined with sweet and melodic harmonies and melodies of a typical Easy-listening song. Subsequently, Dance songs were perfect for singing along and to dance to. Teens were captivated by Dance stars such as Park NahmJung (Untimely Arrival of Love) and SoBahngCha (meaning Fire Engine). Women dance stars lured male fans with their sexy and sensuous moves, much affected by foreign entertainers including Madonna. Kim WanSun was the representative woman entertainer in this field.
Rock in the 70s and 80s was completely independent of the "White music" of the West, which valued harmony and melody lines, volume of natural voice, and a standard format that could serve as a model. As if to rebel against such philosophy, Rock was impulsive, resistant and even autistic at times. It was a genre that should be felt physically but not rationally, which was subjective but not objective and which was self-expressive but not negotiable. All those elements separated the Rockers from their surroundings, and the resulting pain and loneliness were often the central theme in their songs. First the mumbling, then the loud psychopathic screaming with incomprehensible words was the way they expressed themselves and was the means by which they dealt with their stress. Letting it all out was the beauty of Rock.
The "Youth Culture" of the 70s differs greatly from the "New Generation" of the 90s: Firstly, their backgrounds. While teens in the 70s were used to the culture of student demonstration which involved comradeship and togetherness, those in the 90s grew up in an environment where individualism was greatly valued. Secondly, they grew up watching television all their lives and therefore were much more imaginative and visually trained than the older generation. Lastly, they were true city kids, who were used to city noise and other mechanical sounds. Considering all this, they were two very different groups and so were the two cultural phenomena.
As we have examined for far, despite some exploitations and abuses in the Korean music market, many genres of Korean pop songs flourished during the last 30 years, some being transformed and some being prominent over the time. Whereas Trot is on the verge of extinction, Dance music, primarily addressing to the teenage youngsters, dominates the present musical scene.
Among two major foreign influences--Japanese and American--Japanese style and flavor has considerably been faded, American influence is becoming even stronger. From the youth in the 70's to those of today, one attitude remains constant. The Korean youth took the American culture wholeheartedly. From fashion to films and from pop music to literature, they wanted to imitate and thus be a part of the western way of life. So-called "blind admiration" toward anything American is deeply ingrained in Korean popular songs. There is some booming of inserting English words into song lyrics. Many believe incorporating several English words in songs makes their songs look more refined and classy, better attracting young audience's attention.
The well-known female vocal group, Pinkle,'s "Feel your love" serves a good example. The song lyric contains such words or sentences as "kiss me", "we belong together". "Feel your love", "I'm not a baby", "wanna feel your love" as refrain or catch phrases. Those words, together with their attractive appearances, deliberately appeal sensuous love to many teens in their susceptible ages. Similar instances abound: to name a few, Yoo SeungJoon's "I hope you could find me" (ChatGilBaRae); T.G.'s "Love Tonight" Koyote's "Passion."
Seo Taeji started a cultural syndrome that would later on affect numerous areas. From music, to dance and fashion, he completely wiped out all existing stereotypes and trends. His rap was more than enough to draw interest of all, which was a genre that had never been pioneered before, baggy shorts and turned-around cap was an unprecedented dress code and fast and co-ordinated dance sequences made the usual group dances(which were usually composed of exact same movements performed by everyone) obsolete. A fresh and new cultural wave swept over and shocked all teenagers. Taejie became their immediate Idol. Through his five albums, he touched upon such variety of new subjects as unification, drug problem, absurdity of Korean school system. However, it is never too much to emphasize that Seo Taejie's music is unthinkable without the development of new digital technology. He owes greatly to the new recording and computer technologies through which he could lead the new trend in pop song production.
At this point, it is worth mentioning that there are some booming of creating new dance songs based on the preexisting music, especially on some of Classical music. One day, while riding a bus, I happened to listen to a song from the radio. The underlying rhythmic pattern of the song was so familiar that I immediately recognized it, that is, the famous aria "Habanera" from Bizet's [Carmen]. The new song called "Moonlight Song" was sung by an attractive teenage female singer, Park JeeYoon. The instrumental introduction and interlude of the song was an exact duplication of the original aria in its characteristic Habanera rhythm and its chromatic melodic contour. Those remake songs are based on computer sampling techniques which open up unlimited possibilities in pop song production. And those aspects of computer music technologies in making of contemporary pop songs should be dealt in great detail in a separate paper to come.

Bibliography

Choe, Jae-Hee
2001/2/22 "A Potent Voice in Rock to Give a Concert: Kang San-e." JungAngIlBo.
2001/2/28 "Something Wrong with the Distribution System of the Record Market: Big 3 Companies Dominate 80% of Music Record Market." JungAngIlBo.
Choe, Yong-shik
2000/11/29 "Scandals mar moral integrity of show biz." Korea Herald.
Hwang, Jang-Jin
1998/4/14 "Rock Legend Shin JoonHyun Strives to blend Korean and Western Music." Korea Herald: Culture/Lifestyle.
Kang, Hun
1997 "HanKukDaeJungUmAkRon" (A Theory of Korean Popular Music). MinJokUmAkuiYiHye (Understanding of Folk Music). col. 4, pp. 32-56.
Kim, Chang-Nam
1998/7/9 "The Musical Return of Seo TaeJie" JoongAngIlBo. Opinion.
Lee, Young-Mee
1998 HanKook DaeJungKaYoSa (A History of Korean Popular Songs). ShiGongSa.
Noh, Young-Hae
n.d. "Contemporary Korean Popular Music: A Brief History of Korean Pop Song." Korean Studies [Textbook of KAIST International Summer Program]. MyungHyun Publishing Com., pp. 232-244.
Shin, Kyung-hwa
2001/2/27 "TV stations attacked for misleading pop consumers" Korea Herald.

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